Speaker A
If parents of little girls are listening to me, then your life probably has no shortage of unicorns.
Explores the history and myth of unicorns, focusing on the legendary unicorn horn and its role as a centuries-long European luxury fraud.
Key Takeaways
- Unicorns are mythical creatures with no real biological basis, shaped by centuries of artistic and literary tradition.
- The unicorn horn was believed to have magical healing powers, leading to a long-lasting and costly European fraud.
- Ancient texts and misinterpretations of real animals contributed to the unicorn myth.
- Christian symbolism transformed the unicorn's image into a gentle, pure creature associated with women and love.
- Despite scientific debunking, the cultural and economic influence of unicorn myths endured well into the modern era.
Summary
- Unicorn imagery has deep historical roots, especially during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
- Early depictions of unicorns varied widely before becoming standardized as a white horse with a twisted horn.
- The myth of the unicorn horn's magical healing properties originated from ancient texts, notably by Ctesias in the 5th century BC.
- Ctesias described a one-horned animal in India, which fueled European beliefs despite his lack of firsthand experience.
- Ancient seals and Persian reliefs show one-horned animals, but these likely represent symbolic or stylized creatures rather than true unicorns.
- Classical authors like Aristotle and Pliny the Elder contributed to unicorn lore, often confusing real animals like oryxes and Indian rhinos with mythical unicorns.
- Christianity influenced the transformation of the unicorn from a fierce beast to a symbol of purity and love, especially associated with maidens.
- The unicorn horn, or alicorn, was highly prized in Europe as a supposed antidote to poison and disease, creating a lucrative market for fake horns.
- Scientific scrutiny and exposure of the fraud did not immediately end the demand for alicorns, which persisted for centuries.
- The video traces the evolution of unicorn myths and the economic impact of the alicorn trade through historical, religious, and scientific perspectives.
Chapters
- 00:00Unicorns in Everyday Life and History
- 01:45Standardization of Unicorn Imagery in the Renaissance
- 03:37Ctesias’ Description of the Unicorn and Its Horn
- 05:44Ancient Depictions and Misinterpretations of One-Horned Animals
- 07:32Indian Rhinos and the Origins of the Unicorn Myth
- 10:00Unicorns in Biblical Translations and Christian Symbolism
- 13:58The Unicorn Horn as a Luxury Item and Its Magical Reputation
- 20:11Scientific Exposure of the Alicorn Fraud and Its Persistence
Full Transcript — Download SRT & Markdown
Speaker A
It’s very likely that your home is filled with unicorns. They jump on backpacks, on notebooks, on hair clips, on dresses, on t-shirts, on stickers that find their way onto walls and furniture, and several plush unicorns are quite likely sitting in the corners of your sofas.
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This obsession has very deep historical roots. In particular, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance displayed a pathological attachment to unicorns.
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They were written about in poetry and prose, depicted in manuscript margins, in paintings and tapestries, in church frescoes and on tombstones.
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And here’s what’s interesting. Ancient images of unicorns were distinguished by great variety. Unicorns came in different colors, sizes, genders, their horns were of all sorts of shapes. Mostly because none of the artists who painted unicorns had seen them alive. Because they don’t exist.
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But at some point, in the Renaissance, the iconography of unicorns became standardized. It’s as if all European artists suddenly knew exactly how a unicorn really looks. It’s an elegant white horse with a long straight twisted horn on its forehead. As if
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unicorns had been delivered to the city zoo and anyone could run over and take a look.
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So how did it happen that suddenly Europeans knew exactly what a unicorn looked like, and especially its most valuable and magical part — the horn? Sit back comfortably now, I will tell you the story of one of the oldest frauds of the European luxury goods market,
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which lasted for several centuries and cost, I dare suppose, billions of dollars in losses in today’s money. I will tell you about how the unicorn horn was brought to Europe.
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The earliest written account of unicorns is a passage from the work of the ancient Greek physician Ctesias, dated to the 5th century BC.
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“In India there are wild asses, which are as large as horses, or even larger. Their bodies are white, their heads dark red, and their eyes dark blue. On their forehead they have a horn about one and a half feet long.
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The base of this horn, about two handbreadths above the brow, is pure white; the upper part is sharp and of a vivid crimson; and the middle part is black. It is said that those who drink from these horns,
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made into drinking vessels, are immune to convulsions or the sacred disease [epilepsy]. Those who drink wine or water from these horns are immune even to poison.
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This animal is extremely swift and powerful, so that no creature can overtake it. There is only one way to catch them: when they bring their young to pasture, you must surround them with a large number of men and horses. They will not abandon their
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offspring and will fight with horns, teeth, and hooves; and they will kill many horses and men, but they themselves will fall under arrows and spears. They cannot be taken alive. The meat of this animal is so bitter that it cannot be eaten; they are hunted for their horn.”
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Ctesias himself had never been to India, which didn’t stop him from writing a whole book about it — “Indica,” which contained a mass of fascinating nonsense. Apart from unicorns, for example, it described one-legged people with huge feet, under which they sheltered like umbrellas.
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The satirist Lucian placed Ctesias in a special part of hell reserved for those who spread outrageous lies.
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And yet, thanks to Ctesias, and later Aristotle — whose reputation was practically unshakable — Europe came to believe that somewhere in exotic lands lived marvelous creatures with a single horn on their head. And this horn possessed remarkable healing properties.
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“Indica” is the earliest written source about unicorns, but there are far more ancient images — left from the civilizations of India, about which Ctesias wrote, and from Persia, where he lived — which, one might imagine, depict one-horned animals.
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On seals from the Indian subcontinent, dated around 2000 BC, there are depictions of some kind of bulls, with four legs, but seemingly one horn. These bulls wear something like a cloth cover, so they cannot be the wild and elusive unicorns of Ctesias. Around their heads they also clearly
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wear some kind of harness — and if this horn is not two horns shown in profile, then it is quite likely that the horn is simply tied to the head for decorative or symbolic purposes.
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Further we can see one-horned-looking bulls, and even winged ones, on the reliefs of the ancient Persian capital Persepolis in Iran, where Ctesias lived for a long time. Again, he never mentioned wings, and in general classical unicorns never had wings.
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I vote that the winged Persian bulls had two horns, they’re just depicted in profile.
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Already in classical antiquity Aristotle, with his enormous authority, caused a stir, describing in his “History of Animals,” drawing most likely on Ctesias, the “Indian ass” and one-horned African oryxes — about which we now know for certain, first, that they exist, and second, that they have two horns.
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It seems that in several places in the world legends of one-horned animals arose, because large, richly-horned antelopes lived there, which were very cautious and would not let people come close, neither front-on nor face-to-face. As a result hunters could only observe them
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from afar and in profile — and spread tales across the world about wild unicorns that could not be caught.
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Then, Pliny the Elder mentions a “very fierce animal, called the monoceros, which has the head of a stag, the feet of an elephant, and the tail of a boar, while the rest of the body resembles that of a horse; it emits a deep bellowing sound and has a single black horn protruding
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from the middle of its forehead, two cubits long — that’s 90 cm.” Who thinks that’s a rhinoceros?
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In northern India there are Indian rhinos, which unlike the African kind have a single “horn” on the nose. And about them no one doubts that they are terrifying and invincible beasts, very hard to capture alive. They look little like the graceful unicorns
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that prance in modern pictures, but that’s typical Instagram versus reality. So how did this terrible ferocious beast turn into a peaceful, cute creature that girls now wear on their t-shirts? And why, by the way, girls and not boys? Thanks to Christianity.
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In modern Bible translations — no matter the language — you won’t find mentions of unicorns. Everywhere they’ve been replaced by “wild ox.” But in the old Synodal Russian translation, and in the English King James Bible, unicorns gallop across the pages.
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Numbers 23:22. Synodal translation: “God brought them out of Egypt; the speed of a unicorn is with him.” Modern: “God brought them out of Egypt; their strength is like that of a wild ox.” Job 39:9. Synodal: “Will the unicorn be willing to serve you, or spend the night at your manger?”
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Modern: “Will the wild ox consent to serve you? Will it stay by your manger at night?” Psalm 22:21. Synodal: “Save me from the mouth of the lion, and from the horns of unicorns…” Modern: “Save me from the mouth of the lion, and from the horns of wild oxen…” and so on.
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At the end of the 19th century it was decided that unicorns entered old Bible translations by mistake, a mistake going back to the 3rd century BC. When under Ptolemy II the first translation of the Old Testament into Greek was initiated,
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many words contained in it were already out of use. And the legendary 70 scholars, who made the parallel translation of the Bible into Greek — the “Septuagint” — simultaneously faced the fact that some words they did not know how to translate. For example, the word “re’em.” Judging by context,
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this re’em had to be huge, horned, useless for household work, and very powerful. It was used as a metaphor for great strength. It could not have been just an ox, since oxen and this re’em were sometimes listed in the same sentence. And apparently one of the translators,
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well-versed in Greek, remembered the large, powerful, one-horned beast described by the Greek Ctesias. And t
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Young Christianity was inclined to see allegories in everything, from the surrounding world to ancient texts.
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And the mighty victorious beast with one horn from the Old Testament could mean nothing but monotheism, in an era when that was still a painful question. The unicorn suddenly becomes a popular symbol of Christ. And its horn — of the Cross on which he was crucified, an allegory of the Passion
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of the Lord, and at the same time a symbolic weapon with which Christ would strike his spiritual enemies.
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The Physiologus — a didactic Christian text from around the 2nd century AD, consists of descriptions of animals, birds, and fantastic creatures, each accompanied by a picture and a moralizing story, from which the moral and allegorical qualities of the animal are derived.
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It was a super-popular book for a good thousand years, it was translated into several languages, and many of its beautifully illustrated manuscript copies survive. In fact, it established the medieval standard of allegories.
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It is from there that the popular knowledge of unicorns and the legend of how to catch one alive come.
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“There is an animal named Daja, extremely gentle, which hunters cannot catch because of its great strength. In the middle of its forehead grows a single horn. But note the trick by which the hunters capture it. They bring out a young virgin, pure and chaste, and when the animal sees her, it comes
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and rushes to her. Then the girl offers it her breasts, and the animal begins to suckle the girl’s breasts and behave familiarly with her. Then the girl, sitting calmly, stretches out her hand and seizes the horn on the animal’s forehead, and at that moment the hunters come, take the beast, and lead it to the king.
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In the same way the Lord Christ raised up for us the horn of salvation in the midst of Jerusalem, in the house of God, through the intercession of the Mother of God, a virgin pure, chaste, full of mercy, undefiled, inviolate.”
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If it seems to you that the tale of the unicorn hunt and the moral conclusion are not very well connected — you are not alone. The behavior of the chaste girl clearly demonstrates great experience and considerable technical knowledge.
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The fact is that the “Physiologus” is not the work of a single author. It is a collection compiled, probably, over a fairly long period of time, and it absorbed anecdotes from different places. And the Christian interpretation was clearly stitched with white thread onto an old tale with a completely different moral.
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And thus the biblical unicorn — a fearsome macho beast, with which ancient Hebrew kings compared themselves — gradually begins to be associated with meekness, the Virgin, and young maidens.
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With the establishment of this standard, unicorns become much smaller — so they can comfortably fit on a maiden’s lap. They are no longer a symbol of invincible royal power, but a symbol of love, sometimes spiritual, sometimes courtly, of loyalty and devotion to the Lady of the Heart.
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In one of his notebooks Leonardo da Vinci wrote: “The unicorn, because of its lack of self-restraint and inability to control itself, because of its love for a beautiful lady, forgets its wildness; and, casting aside all fear, it approaches the seated maiden and falls asleep in her lap, and thus the hunters take it.”
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The famous late Gothic sets of tapestries depicting the hunt for the unicorn already clearly have a completely secular tone. The submission of the unicorn to the beautiful lady symbolizes not the salvation of the soul, but the taming of passions and devotion to one’s beloved, according to the ideals of courtly love.
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By this time, the decision of the Council of Trent had forbidden the depiction of the unicorn in religious art — its symbolism had become far too ambiguous. However, many were shocked and offended when Marco Polo reached Sumatra and described there
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real unicorns: “They have the hair of a buffalo and feet like an elephant. They have one large black horn in the middle of their forehead and a head like a wild boar… They prefer to spend their time wallowing in mud and slime. These are very ugly creatures. They are nothing like
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what we describe when we say that they allow virgins to capture them.” But despite the fact that the days of the unicorn as an allegory were numbered, its popularity not only did not diminish, but steadily grew. Yet this popularity was
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of a purely practical kind: Europeans needed its horn. By the end of the 14th century, in Europe it was widely believed that the unicorn, thanks to its angelic purity, could heal and cleanse any infection or filth. In fact,
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the notorious Ctesias had already written about this. And in the “Physiologus” — the book that contained the advice about catching a unicorn with a virgin — it is told how the unicorn cleanses a great lake of serpent’s poison.
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Symbolically, the serpent that poisons the water is the devil, and the unicorn represents Christ the Savior.
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This theme became very popular: the unicorn was often depicted at the bank of a river, a lake, or a fountain. These images and stories convinced naive Europe that the unicorn’s horn could neutralize poison with a single touch. And the unicorn horn became the greatest treasure a person could possess.
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The unicorn horn is called an alicorn. The word alicorn apparently comes from the Italian al-li-corno — that is, “the horn” with two definite articles from two languages: the Arabic and Italian “al” and “li.” In other words, the very, very horn.
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Alicorns were presented as diplomatic gifts by kings and popes of Rome. It was used to create scepters and crowns; from it were made the scabbard and hilt of the sword of Charles the Bold, and two-meter-long alicorns were used as papal staffs.
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Most of the famous alicorns were kept in large churches and monasteries. They were known to all travelers, and were often put on display during festivals.
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The most famous of them was the horn from the abbey of Saint-Denis near Paris, over two meters long and weighing six kilograms. It was considered a sacred relic, sent from Persia, and it was dipped into water with which lepers were treated.
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It was widely believed that the alicorn not only neutralized poisons, but also “sweated” in the presence of poisoned drinks and food. There was no better gift for an influential person than a small cup made of alicorn. The problem was that even the largest unicorn horn was not wide enough in diameter
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to make a full drinking goblet. Only a shot-sized cup could be made, or a bowl made of other materials could be inlaid with pieces of alicorn — that worked too.
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Or at least one could simply drop a piece of alicorn into a drink. When Edward IV of England married his sister to the Duke of Burgundy, the Frenchman brought his piece of alicorn with him to England, since he could not trust the English,
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and times were difficult, the 15th century. The Grand Inquisitor Torquemada always kept on his table a piece of alicorn as a precaution — considering his profession, quite understandable.
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The alicorn was used not only as an antidote, but also as a panacea for all diseases. A very, it should be noted, expensive panacea, since the alicorn cost its weight in gold.
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When the palace of Piero de’ Medici was plundered in 1495, the looters “took, among other things, a whole unicorn horn worth six or seven thousand ducats.” An alicorn given to the king of France in 1553, according to accounts, was worth twenty thousand pounds sterling. In 1597
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the Venetian Republic offered thirty thousand ducats for a whole horn — and failed to bargain it down.
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When the daughter of Henry II of France fell ill with smallpox, she was treated with a solution of ground alicorn in cold water. But ordinary people could only afford “eau de licorne,” which was made simply by immersing a unicorn horn
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into a vessel of water. This was supposed to charge the water with healing properties.
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Sometimes holes were drilled through the horn along its entire length, and water was run through it, but in both cases the water was considered extremely beneficial and was in great demand throughout Europe.
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When the price of alicorn rose to its maximum, the value of a whole horn equaled its weight in gold, multiplied by 20. In the first year of Queen Elizabeth I’s reign an inventory was carried out in the royal palace,
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during which a unicorn horn was recorded worth 10,000 pounds sterling, equivalent to several millions in today’s money. Her successor James I paid just as large a sum for his alicorn. To test the effectiveness of his purchase, James gave one of his servants a little poison mixed with alicorn powder and, when the man dropped dead,
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he was indignant that he had been sold a fake. And such embarrassments happened from time to time.
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The lucky owners of a unicorn horn periodically discovered that the expensive medicine did not possess the expected magical properties. On the market there were plenty of fakes. In the Hamburg Museum of Applied Arts, there is preserved a genuine cup made of alicorn, and next to it stands a fake glass made of ivory.
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You must be slightly puzzled. In what sense “a fake unicorn horn”? A fake of what exactly?
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One of us two has definitely gone mad. If you’re curious, please like and subscribe to my channel if you’re here for the first time.
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So, the fact is that by that time all enlightened Europe knew exactly what a real alicorn looked like. In paintings of that time, unicorns and their horns look the same: it’s a beautiful white horse with a long, straight, pointed horn twisted into a spiral.
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Therefore, ivory fakes had to be soaked, straightened, and then engraved with circular grooves. At the same time, a whole horn cost insane millions, and the average buyer could not count on it — only on a piece. Which made him easily the victim of fraudsters. Most of the alicorn in
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Europe was sold in powder form. Powders of alicorn were made from cow bones, deer antlers, various fossils, stalagmites and stalactites, and God knows what else.
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Many Renaissance authors warned readers that real alicorn was rarer than a genuine Birkin bag, and explained how to tell a fake without wasting servants.
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Doctor Conrad Gesner of Zurich recommended, first of all, buying alicorn in large pieces if possible, and if not, to give a little arsenic to a pair of doves, and then give one of them some alicorn powder to drink: if that dove survives,
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and the other dies, then the alicorn is genuine. A scientific method, with control. And one David de Pomis writes the following: “Wishing to benefit the world and expose the scoundrels selling useless things at high prices, I take this opportunity to describe a true test
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by which one can distinguish a real alicorn from a fake. Place the horn in a vessel of any material together with three or four live scorpions, cover the vessel with a lid. If after four hours you find that the scorpions are dead,
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then the alicorn is real, and there is not enough money in the world to pay for it.” The price of alicorn on internal European markets remained sky-high for over a hundred years, only to crash at the end of the 17th century,
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when the giant fraud with “real” unicorn horns was finally exposed. Until the era of great geographical discoveries, when Europeans began sailing their ships to all corners of the world, the unicorn horn arrived in Europe sporadically along with other overseas curiosities. It was impossible to trace its origin.
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By the beginning of the 17th century, about twenty famous whole alicorns had accumulated in Europe, and no one had the slightest idea where they came from. Pieces of alicorn and its powder were steadily supplied through Scandinavia, where this trade brought enormous profits. Danish
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merchants brought alicorn to Hamburg and Lübeck, from where it spread throughout Europe. The Danish merchants, of course, did not chase unicorns themselves, but had sources they did not disclose. Meanwhile, other Europeans also began traveling to northern latitudes and encountering animals whose existence began to undermine faith in the alicorn.
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In 1569, one Goropius gave a detailed description of a huge whole alicorn offered for sale in Antwerp, and expressed cautious skepticism about its origin: “Sometimes I suspect,” he writes, “that this is the horn of some fish, because fish
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have many remarkable horns, and also because this horn was brought from Iceland.” When the Englishman Martin Frobisher set out on his second voyage in search of the Northwest Passage in 1577, his crew discovered in the icy seas: “A floating dead fish,
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which had in its nose a straight and twisted horn two yards long minus two inches, broken at the top…” After which the sailors stuffed spiders into the cavity of the horn, which soon died. And the captain cautiously suggested that they had discovered a sea unicorn.
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Buyers began to doubt that the “unicorn horn” was really what it was claimed to be. And in the 1630s the reputation of alicorn, and with it the economic frenzy around it, burst like a soap bubble.
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It so happened that the conscientious Danish merchants dug their own grave. They were very interested in making sure their product was not completely discredited. And they turned to the royal professor Ole Worm, a famous zoologist and owner of a huge collection of rarities, so that he would issue their export alicorn
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a certificate of authenticity. Professor Worm did a thorough study and published a report stating that alicorns are not horns at all. They do not possess the form or composition of horns. They have all the characteristics of teeth, and should be called teeth. Specifically — the teeth of narwhals,
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cetacean sea creatures living in the northern seas. As proof, he presented a narwhal skull that had come into his possession. Ole described both this skull and the tusk protruding from the left side of the upper jaw, with irritating precision.
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The Danish merchants regretted a hundred times having dealt with the scholar, but they did not stop trading in alicorn. However, they could not hush up the whole story. The alicorn was not canceled, it was rebranded.
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A few years later, Worm’s friend and distant relative Thomas Bartholin published a fundamental work in Latin, New Observations on the Unicorn. In this book, Bartholin meticulously analyzed all known horned creatures, from rhinoceroses to horn beetles and horned vipers — all
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with illustrations. He even discusses the question of whether there can be people with one or two horns, like Moses. And he unambiguously reports what is actually being sold by apothecaries across Europe: “In the vicinity of our island of Greenland and other northern islands, there is often found a huge
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sea creature, popularly known as the narwhal, because it feeds on corpses — när in Danish.
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This creature, similar in appearance and size to a whale, has a tusk of unusual size, growing from a gap in the front teeth... It is this tusk that many have sold as alicorn, and it is kept in the treasuries of various rulers. In former times, the great value of the tusk was due to the fact
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that it was rare, and only reached foreign shores when the fish happened to be washed ashore. Nowadays, the growth of trade with Greenland and Spitsbergen has revealed the nature of the tusk and its availability. In recent years, our merchants have filled whole cargo
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ships with this supposed horn and would have imported it into Europe under the guise of genuine alicorn, had the experts not torn off the mask and recognized that this tusk is of oceanic origin.” But here Bartholin makes a sharp turn and reports that although the narwhal tusk is
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not a unicorn’s horn, it nevertheless has undeniable medicinal qualities. Perhaps it is even more useful. According to the beliefs of the time, all land animals had marine analogues. The narwhal is the sea unicorn, a fat spindle-shaped reflection of the terrestrial one.
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So, despite the exposure, princes and commoners continued to demand alicorn from their doctors to fight poisoners and diarrhea for another 150 years.
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And doctors, already seriously doubting its effectiveness, continued to prescribe the remedy, and apothecaries continued to sell it. True, the price of narwhal tusks dropped sharply, but that was mainly due to market saturation. It would take the entire 18th century before European doctors stopped
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prescribing unicorn horn to patients and openly called it quackery. By the 19th century, the unicorn had fallen from the level of the greatest religious symbol, the symbol of Christ and his Passion, to the level of a somewhat vulgar allegory with a latent sexual undertone. From a mighty beast
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scattering knights like Moses, it had turned into a pink plush toy and a character of childish fantasy. Note that, for example, the dove retained its reputation and was reinterpreted from a symbol of the Holy Spirit into a symbol of peace. But the unicorn did not survive public and prolonged disgrace.
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Hence the moral: don’t fall for the illusory value of the “authentic.” How is a real diamond better than an artificial one? Not at all. They are both equally useless — like genuine and fake alicorn. It’s quartz. That’s all for today, thank you for your attention and see you next time.
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• What are you doing here? • Drinking tea. And that’s all for today, all the best to you and see you soon.
Topics:unicornalicornunicorn hornmythologyhistory of unicornsEuropean luxury fraudCtesiasmedieval artChristian symbolismancient texts
